Article 3: Scripture Through the Ages—Medieval to Reformation
Throughout history, the Christian Church has consistently regarded the Bible as far more than a mere repository of religious ideas. From the early centuries to modern times, believers have spoken of Scripture as a living, transformative Word from God. Yet the nuances of how the Church understood, taught, and defended Scripture’s authority have varied considerably across the ages. In the Middle Ages, reverence for the biblical text flourished in tandem with a strong emphasis on Church tradition, monastic learning, and scholastic theology. Then, in the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation dramatically refocused attention on sola scriptura—the principle that Scripture stands as the final, decisive authority in all matters of faith and practice.
Our goal in this article is to sketch a clear, forthright overview of how the Bible’s status as God’s Word evolved from the medieval period into the Reformation era. We will draw lightly on Richard Muller’s insights into scholastic and Reformation thought, note Robert Preus’s references to Martin Luther, and offer a brief nod to Louis Gaussen’s perspective—showing how Gaussen later defended many Reformation-era convictions concerning divine inspiration. Along the way, we will see that, although the theological focus shifted dramatically at the Reformation, the continuity of honoring Scripture as God’s revelation remained strong.
1. The Medieval Era Overview
Scripture in a World of Tradition and Monastic Devotion
During the medieval centuries (roughly from the 5th to the 15th century), the Bible’s authority was widely acknowledged in Western Christendom. Churches typically used the Latin Vulgate translation of Jerome, and biblical passages informed daily worship, moral teaching, and theological reflection. However, Scripture was commonly interpreted within a framework where Church tradition, creeds, and ecclesiastical hierarchy also held significant roles. This interplay between Scripture and tradition remains a key feature of medieval theology.
Monastic Centers of Biblical Study
- Many medieval theologians, including the Benedictines and Cistercians, spent hours copying, reading, and meditating on Scripture. Their cathedrals and abbeys preserved biblical manuscripts diligently, and their liturgical life abounded with Scripture readings, chants, and prayers. Thus, while the common laity might not always have direct access to the Bible (due to literacy rates and language barriers), monastic communities revered Scripture as a repository of God’s truth.
Rise of Scholasticism
- As Richard Muller explains, from the 11th through 13th centuries, scholastic theologians like Anselm of Canterbury, Peter Lombard, and Thomas Aquinas began systematically integrating faith and reason. Scripture, for Aquinas in particular, was the foundation for theology as a sacra doctrina, or “holy teaching.” Even if Church authority often guided interpretation, these theologians largely assumed the biblical text was the Word of God. That said, the status of Scripture was not always carved out in the same discrete, intense manner the Reformation era would demand; Scripture was seldom singled out as the sole rule of faith, because tradition and magisterial teaching were also influential.
Limited Access and Vernacular Barriers
- The Vulgate version meant that those who did not read Latin often relied on clergy for scriptural teaching. Yet, meditations on the Gospels or the Psalms abounded in monastic schools. Richard Muller notes that while theopneustia was recognized implicitly, it was not typically the subject of elaborate treatises; medieval schoolmen accepted biblical authority as given, without always elaborating the formal concept of “plenary inspiration” that later controversies would solidify.
Seeds of Critique
- Even within this era, some individuals questioned excessive reliance on traditions that seemed to overshadow Scripture. Pre-reformers like John Wycliffe (in England) and Jan Hus (in Bohemia) began urging a return to the Bible’s authority over Church councils, foreshadowing major Reformation developments.
Thus, the medieval period, for all its differences from modern settings, cultivated a deep respect for Scripture as God’s Word—scripture-laden liturgies, scriptural expositions by scholastics, and monastic reverence all pointed to a robust biblical piety. The difference lay in the weight given to papal authority and ecclesial tradition alongside the text. As we move toward the Reformation, tensions around that interplay escalated significantly.
2. Early Pre-Reform Voices
Wycliffe, Hus, and a Renewed Cry for the Bible
Though still considered part of the broader medieval era, the 14th–15th centuries saw stirrings that presaged the Reformation. Figures like John Wycliffe (c. 1320s–1384) in England and Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415) in Bohemia did not break with the Church in the same way Luther later would, but they did push for Scripture’s primacy over certain Church structures and traditions.
John Wycliffe
- Often dubbed the “Morning Star of the Reformation,” Wycliffe argued that Christ—not the pope—was the true head of the Church, and that Scripture was the supreme authority for Christian faith. He championed translating the Bible into English, defying a Church climate that sometimes frowned on vernacular translations. Though Wycliffe’s biblical convictions led him into conflict with ecclesial powers, his emphasis that the Bible is the final arbiter of doctrine sowed crucial seeds for later Reformers.
Jan Hus
- Influenced by Wycliffe, Hus similarly taught that Scripture outweighed the decrees of church councils when they contradicted biblical teaching. He too stressed the importance of biblical preaching in the common language of the people. Hus was ultimately condemned at the Council of Constance (1415) and burned at the stake, a tragedy but also a potent symbol of the era’s tension over Scripture’s role.
- These early “proto-Reformers” paved the way for 16th-century movements by insisting that the biblical text, rightly interpreted, should guide the Church more than papal or conciliar pronouncements.
Hence, by the dawn of the 16th century, a groundswell of discontent with certain ecclesiastical practices found a rallying cry in the renewed call for the Bible’s centrality. Luther would soon inherit and amplify these convictions in an unprecedented way.
3. Breakthrough in the Reformation
Sola Scriptura as a Rallying Cry
When Martin Luther (1483–1546) nailed his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, he did not initially see himself as toppling the established order; he merely sought debate on indulgences. Yet within a few years, he was challenging the papal system on a foundational principle: sola scriptura, meaning “by Scripture alone.” For Luther, Scripture possessed unrivaled authority precisely because it was the Word of God. This stance had immediate theological and pastoral consequences:
Scripture as the Supreme Authority
- In his famous “Here I stand” speech at the Diet of Worms (1521), Luther allegedly declared he could not recant unless convinced by “Scripture and plain reason.” His subordination of councils and popes to Scripture was a flashpoint that redefined Western Christian theology. Robert Preus notes how Luther’s unwavering emphasis on biblical authority, rather than a multi-sourced approach, set the template for 17th-century Lutheran Orthodoxy.
Bible Translation and Lay Access
- Luther’s German translation, published beginning in 1522 for the New Testament and completed for the Old Testament by 1534, catalyzed a new era of lay engagement. Following his lead, numerous reformers across Europe produced vernacular translations, heightening the sense that Scripture is truly the Church’s book, a living Word meant for all.
Doctrinal Formulation
- The Reformation hammered out the principle that “All Scripture is God-breathed,” aligning with Pauline words in 2 Timothy 3:16. Luther, though not a systematician in the style of later centuries, repeatedly spoke of the Bible’s inerrancy and perspicuity, insisting that the Holy Spirit alone had authored it. While “theopneustia” as a term was not Luther’s main watchword, the concept fits seamlessly with his convictions.
Expanding the Movement
- Other reformers, such as Ulrich Zwingli in Zurich, John Calvin in Geneva, and the English reformers, likewise championed Scripture’s primacy. Though they had differences (e.g., the Eucharist in Luther vs. Zwingli), they converged on the belief that Scripture, not human tradition, was the controlling norm for faith. This catalyzed confessional statements like the Augsburg Confession (1530) among Lutherans, the Gallic Confession (1559) among French Reformed, and later the Westminster Confession (1646) for English Puritans.
From a historical standpoint, the Reformation’s clarion call for sola scriptura was the hinge that differentiated pre-Reformation “high reverence for Scripture” from a new epoch of “Scripture alone as the ultimate test.” Post-Reformation authors, studied by Richard Muller, systematically codified these convictions in theological “loci” dedicated to Scripture.
4. Gaussen’s Light Mention: 19th-Century Continuities
Though writing three centuries after Luther, Louis Gaussen in 19th-century Geneva continued that Reformation spirit of championing the Bible’s absolute trustworthiness. Gaussen, as we saw in previous articles, reaffirmed that theopneustia extends to every word of Scripture, leaving no room for partial or incomplete inspiration theories. He was responding to a new wave of rationalism and biblical criticism, but the heartbeat of his defense mirrored early Protestant convictions. In essence, Gaussen retrieved and restated the older Reformation stance: that Scripture is fully God-breathed, bridging the medieval faith in biblical authority (often overshadowed by tradition) and the Reformation’s insistence on the Bible’s supremacy.
5. Key Historical Documents and Confessions
From Trent to Augsburg to Westminster
As theological battles raged across Europe, formal confessional documents crystallized the differences and the commitments of each branch of Christendom.
Council of Trent (1545–1563)
- On the Roman Catholic side, Trent reaffirmed that Scripture and unwritten tradition both carried binding authority. The Catholic Church thus upheld medieval patterns, though it also insisted on the Bible’s sanctity. Catholic doctrine saw the Magisterium as the official interpreter, safeguarding the text from errors of private interpretation.
Augsburg Confession (1530) and the Book of Concord (1580)
- For Lutherans, the Augsburg Confession set forth basic tenets, with Scripture implicitly recognized as ultimate. By the time of the Book of Concord, the principle of scriptural supremacy was entrenched, pointing to God’s Word as the norm that norms all theology (norma normans).
The Geneva Confession (1536) and the Helvetic Confessions
- In Reformed contexts, John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger anchored their statements in Scripture’s final authority over all doctrinal formulations. While the Reformed tradition recognized the role of the ecumenical creeds (e.g., Nicene), they grounded them in Scripture as the unique measuring rod.
Westminster Confession of Faith (1646)
- By the mid-17th century, English Puritans produced a robust articulation of biblical inspiration and authority that is arguably one of the high points of Reformed scholastic theology. They explicitly cited 2 Timothy 3:16–17, among other verses, affirming that Scripture alone suffices as the rule for faith and life.
These confessions do not so much “invent” Scripture’s authority as concretize it in confessional form. As Richard Muller has noted, they reflect the Reformation’s consolidation of earlier convictions—heightening clarity on the theopneustic nature of Scripture that medieval theologians had often presumed but not systematically defined in the same manner.
6. Practical Lessons for Contemporary Believers
Why does it matter to see how the status of Scripture developed from medieval monastic reverence and scholastic elaboration into the dramatic Reformation cry for sola scriptura? Several lessons emerge:
Continuity and Change
- We observe continuity: Both medieval and Reformation eras upheld the biblical text as divine. Yet the Reformation introduced a decisive shift, giving Scripture a final, unmediated authority. This underscores that the Church’s embrace of Scripture as God’s Word is ancient, but how that authority was exercised or guarded shifted over time.
Respect for Tradition, But Scripture Over All
- The Reformation did not erase tradition; many Reformers quoted Church Fathers extensively. Nevertheless, these Reformers insisted that any tradition contrary to the clear text of Scripture must yield. This nuance challenges modern believers to appreciate the wisdom of Church history while letting biblical authority remain paramount.
Accessibility and Translation
- The medieval practice of preserving Scripture in Latin inadvertently restricted laypeople’s access. The Reformation emphasized translations so all believers could engage Scripture firsthand. This impetus continues today with thousands of translations worldwide—an ongoing legacy of Reformation zeal for letting God’s Word speak to every tribe and tongue.
Scholarly Rigor and Spiritual Depth
- While some medieval scholastics were recognized for complicated theological systems, they also cultivated deep reflection on Scripture, as did the Reformers. The best approach to reading Scripture remains a balance between rigorous study (including historical-linguistic contexts) and reverent devotion (seeing it as truly the voice of God).
Guarding Theopneustia
- Gaussen’s 19th-century defense of plenary inspiration was not a new invention. It was an extension of both medieval acceptance of Scripture’s sanctity and Reformation clarity on the Bible’s supremacy. For believers today, it reaffirms that from Aquinas to Luther to Gaussen, the Church has consistently regarded Scripture as not mere opinion but God’s living Word.
7. Conclusion and Next Steps
From the close of antiquity through the height of the medieval scholastic era, the Bible was venerated as divine revelation, though it typically functioned alongside robust traditions and a powerful ecclesiastical structure. Early voices like Wycliffe and Hus signaled the rising call to let Scripture judge tradition—an echo that would find full resonance in the Reformation’s sola scriptura. Luther’s bold stance at Worms, supported by other reformers, reshaped Christendom by insisting that the biblical text alone was God’s decisive authority for doctrine, ethics, and church governance.
This Reformation emphasis was later systematized by confessions—Augsburg, Westminster, and more—that hammered out the details of what it means to say “All Scripture is God-breathed.” Richard Muller’s historical analysis shows these developments culminating in precise dogmatic statements of scriptural inspiration, while Robert Preus focuses on how Luther and his successors in the Lutheran tradition maintained a thoroughgoing reliance on Scripture’s authority. Meanwhile, Gaussen’s 19th-century defense reminds us that such convictions have been repeatedly challenged across history, requiring renewed articulation.
For readers in today’s context, the medieval-to-Reformation trajectory illustrates how Scripture’s authority, though always acknowledged, gained renewed focus in times of ecclesial and cultural upheaval. We also see that the claim to theopneustia is not an isolated phenomenon of the modern era but a backbone of Christian faith for well over a millennium. As we move to the next articles, we will more closely examine how key Reformation figures—particularly Luther and Calvin—articulated their high view of God’s Word, and we will explore how Gaussen’s 19th-century reflections resonate with that very legacy.
Regardless of one’s specific church affiliation, the lessons gleaned from this historical journey remain vital. Scripture stands as a unifying thread—from medieval monastic study to the bold reforms of the 16th century to the robust confessional statements that followed. Its authority, always deriving from God’s Spirit, endures through centuries of changing theological and cultural landscapes. By seeing ourselves as heirs of both medieval devotion and Reformation conviction, we may approach the Bible with a fuller sense of continuity—imbibing the reverence of earlier ages while embracing the clarity and focus championed by the Reformers. It is in this dynamic that one sees not a dust-laden relic of the past but a living, abiding Word, relevant for all times and all peoples.
